HIPOT: What is it? The Hipot test (short for High Potential test), or sometimes called Dielectric Withstand test or Insulation breakdown test, is a test used to verify the strength of the insulation between the current-carrying path of a device and its chassis or enclosure. This is done by applying a high voltage (significantly higher than the device’s nominal operating voltage) from the input lines to the chassis of the product and measuring or monitoring the resulting leakage current flowing through its insulation. Why HIPOT? The Hipot test is the most important safety test for electronics and electrical devices. The test is done on finished goods prior to shipment to detect or verify the quality of the insulation system of the product as well as detect any latent manufacturing faults. It can also be used to verify the installation correctness or otherwise of a system for field or end user applications. The theory behind the test is that if a voltage much higher than the product would typically see is applied across the insulation of the system or product without a breakdown, the product will be able to operate safely at nominal operating conditions. The Hipot basically stresses the insulation [...]

Resistors are common devices required for today’s electronics. It is so prevalent in design, we often tend to think they do not require close attention to their inherent properties. While many applications can be designed using performance assumptions gained from years and years of experience, this is not the case for all resistors, all of the time. When using very high value resistors, there are a number of common resistor behaviors that may not apply, or in some case are backwards of traditional thinking. One such counter-intuitive relationship is Voltage Coefficient of Resistance (VCR). VCR is the relationship between the voltage seen by the resistive element and the corresponding resistance measured by a given device. One of the most important parameters of precise high-ohmic resistors is the VCR. The goal of resistor manufacturers is to try to create a resistor device that has consistent stated value of resistance, but does not have varying resistance values across broad voltage ranges. The Voltage Coefficient is the change in resistance with applied voltage over a specific voltage range. We measure the stability of the resistor with respect to changes in voltage. A resistor with a VCR of 100 ppm/V will change 0.1% over [...]

1. The terminals of IMS’ ALN chips are constructed using proprietary processes and materials, which were specifically formulated to partially fulfill the requirement of a non-magnetic (no nickel), solder leach resistant material (but whose leach resistance would still approach that possessed by “nickel barrier” type products). 2. According to ana analysis of testing performed at ims, these ALN chips will withstand soldering conditions characterized by a maximum temperature of 260 °C for a duration of 10 seconds. 3. Due to the relatively high thermal conductivity (TC) of ALN ceramic, contact style soldering methods (such as soldering irons and hot air column heating) may be difficult to implement. Best results occur with hot plate reflow, belt or chamber reflow methods. The TC of ALN ranges from 170-180 (W/m°C), which can result in significant cooling of soldering iron tips during contact with the component. Subsequently, this often results in the operator compensating the effect by either unduly elevating the temperature of the iron or by over-extending the contact duration, thus potentially damaging the part. 4. Typical Five-Zone Infrared Belt-Furnace profiles are characterized by the following graph: Although specific applications will vary, each with many factors to consider (such as board type and [...]

The graph shown here illustrates a typical low pass filter (LPF) function. It indicates how much attenuation is achieved at a given frequency for, in this instance, the IMF2293. All other LPF graphs will be similar to this one, but will have different frequency spans and different gradients depending on the design of the filter. In order to quote/specify a low pass filter, the following information must typically be provided: 1. The extent of the passband (i.e.; what frequencies does the low pass filter PASS?). 2. The passband insertion loss (how much power is dissipated by the filter). 3. The stop band attenuation levels and frequencies (which frequencies does the filter reject and by how much?). Generally, IMS filters will have passband insertion losses ranging between 0.5 dB and 1.0 dB with a few exceptions, depending on design. If a customer needs less than 0.3dB loss, it is unlikely that IMS can meet that requirement. Conversely, if the customer can live with greater than 2 dB insertion loss, then they may be able to use an off the shelf low cost LTCC device. The extent of the passband is usually described as “DC to 1.5GHz” or “DC to 2.4GHz” or [...]

Frequently, one needs more power in a chip of a given size. The question regarding IMS chip resistors then becomes whether or not to choose aluminum nitride (ALN) chips, or alumina (Al2O3) chips in the Super RCX family. In most cases, the answer depends on whether or not the power requirement is a couple of watts, or much more – e.g., 10-20W. Before ALN is considered, however, we must first ask whether or not the customer is thermally managing the chips that need upgrading. If the answer is “yes” and 20 watts or more are needed in a small package, then ALN is the answer. If the customer is not thermally managing (or cannot), choosing ALN will not help, since ALN does not radiate heat any more readily than Al2O3. ALN is a much better conductor of heat than Al2O3, which makes it a great solution when a lot of power is needed and it also makes ALN a great alternative to BeO, especially when BeO is unacceptable for use, an ever more frequent occurrence. ALN has a thermal conductivity (abbreviated: k) of about 170-180 W/meter°C, whereas Al2O3 has a k of about 25-28 W/meter°C. The value of k actually [...]

Adhesion: The ability of dissimilar metals or particles to cling together as a joint is referred to as adhesion. Adhesion in the thick film is created by either a chemical (oxide bonded) or mechanical (Frit) bonds. Peel tests can be used to measure adhesion between lead and substrate and dielectric. Alpha coefficient: In a thermally sensitive resistor or Thermistor applications, the alpha (?) coefficient is a material characteristic that defines the percentage resistance change per degree centigrade. It is also known as the temperature coefficient and it's calculated by the following relationship; ? = 1/RT x dR/dT Where RT is the resistance of the component at the relevant temperature in (°C), dR/dT is the gradient of the R vs. T curve at that temperature point and alpha is expressed in (%/°C) Annealing: Annealing is a heat process whereby a material (metal or glass) is heated to a specific temperature (annealed point) and then allowed to cool slowly in order to maintain ductility and prevent crack and internal stress. Aspect Ratio (AR): The ratio of resistor length to resistor width is the aspect ratio. It's also known as the number of squares. Amplitude Balance: The maximum deviation or difference in amplitude [...]

Ensuring optimal RF performance (that is, mechanical, thermal and electrical performance) of a surface-mount technology (SMT) ceramic device requires the careful procurement and use of consistently well-behaved materials, the use of proper and rigorous design principles, and proper attention paid to the appropriate parameters (on the part of the manufacturer in its design, and on the part of the user in its operation). In this way, the reflection, dissipation, and transmission signatures of the device in question remain consistently and predictably well behaved. Some instances of devices that are designed to maximize dissipative loss are terminations, loads, absorptive filters and dividers, etc. Typically, these devices must minimize reflective loss (regardless of the nature of the signals at their inputs), which, when combined with proper dissipative design, results in an optimal transmission signature as well. SMT devices that are non-dissipative by design are hybrid couplers, power dividers, filters, etc. Filters, of course, are designed such that some signals are to experience a minimum of reflection and dissipation while maximizing transmission, whereas other signals are to experience a maximum of reflection while minimizing transmission. Other dissipative devices are attenuators, voltage dropping resistors, resistive splitters, etc. Attenuators must be designed such that reflective [...]

Considerations for proper soldering methods and techniques of chip resistors. Soldering is the process of using a metal alloy with a low melting temperature to fuse or ‘solder' the electrical contacts of a component to the pads on a circuitboard. Proper soldering enhances the strength and conductivity of the connection. Poor soldering can result in weak connections, higher resistance that causes heat buildup at the connection, and possible failure of the component. Did you also know that hermetically sealed circuit boards are useful for projects with complex computations? A hermetic seal is widely used in applications that require light and compact sealing methods such as missiles or bomb fuses. You can find more information and get a circuit board sealer here. The type of components and the pads to which they will be attached dictate the appropriate soldering method. The correct amount and duration of heat to be applied are determined by the component, the circuit board, the solder pads, the solder and flux, and the environment in which the soldering takes place. For this reason, effective soldering requires reasonable controls. Some experimentation is required to determine the optimal conditions for each specific application. General Soldering Guidelines: All soldering applications [...]

Temperature/Duration Limit Recommendations PEAK TEMPERATURE TIME 260 deg C (500 deg F) 5 Seconds 250 deg C (482 deg F) 10 Seconds 240 deg C (464 deg F) 20 Seconds 230 deg C (446 deg F) 30 Seconds 204 deg C (400 deg F) 40 Seconds Although specific applications will vary and many other variables will need to be considered such as board type, adjacent components, and delivery methods for the solder, using a standard Mil grade solder (ie. SN-62) and a good Mil grade RA or RMA flux, the profile depicted above will typically give good results. Note: Regarding Aluminum Nitride Components: ALN is very thermally conductive. Contact style soldering methods that do not consider the heat-sync properties of these high thermally conductive components (ie. Soldering irons and hot air column heating methods) can be difficult to use. Best results occur with hot plate reflow, or belt or chamber reflow methods. ALN has a TC of 170 W/ m/ °K and this high heat conductivity can cool soldering iron tips the instant they come into contact with the component which often results in turning up the heat on the iron much too high to compensate. Download our tech note [...]